meditation
Aug 31, 2003 05:19 PM
by Maynard Smith
Hi,
Below is a scientific experiment exploring the effects
of meditation on happiness and health. Main
conclusions: meditation increases happiness and
health. Here is a good example of how science can be
used to prove/disprove doctrines that apparently
(according to some skeptics) science can never
prove/disprove. Even the Dalai Lama siad that if
science can prove one of his doctrines wrong, then he
is willing to change that doctrine. It is not science
that is limited but our capacity to devise creative
experiments.
I apologise if this turns out a bit messy but I have
copied the abstract first followed by the article.
Source: Psychosomatic Medicine, 2003, 65(4), 564-570.
Title:
Alterations in Brain and Immune Function Produced by
Mindfulness Meditation
Authors:
RICHARD J. DAVIDSON, PHD, JON KABAT-ZINN, PHD, JESSICA
SCHUMACHER, MS, MELISSA ROSENKRANZ, BA,
DANIEL MULLER, MD, PHD, SAKI F. SANTORELLI, EDD,
FERRIS URBANOWSKI, MA, ANNE HARRINGTON, PHD,
KATHERINE BONUS, MA, AND JOHN F. SHERIDAN, PHD
Objective: The underlying changes in biological
processes that are associated with reported changes in
mental and physical health
in response to meditation have not been systematically
explored. We performed a randomized, controlled study
on the effects on
brain and immune function of a well-known and widely
used 8-week clinical training program in mindfulness
meditation applied
in a work environment with healthy employees.
Methods: We measured brain electrical activity before
and immediately after, and
then 4 months after an 8-week training program in
mindfulness meditation. Twenty-five subjects were
tested in the meditation
group. A wait-list control group (N 16) was tested
at the same points in time as the meditators. At the
end of the 8-week period,
subjects in both groups were vaccinated with influenza
vaccine.
Results: We report for the first time significant
increases in
left-sided anterior activation, a pattern previously
associated with positive affect, in the meditators
compared with the nonmeditators.
We also found significant increases in antibody titers
to influenza vaccine among subjects in the meditation
compared with
those in the wait-list control group. Finally, the
magnitude of increase in left-sided activation
predicted the magnitude of antibody
titer rise to the vaccine.
Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that a short
program in mindfulness meditation produces
demonstrable effects on brain and immune function.
These findings suggest that meditation may change
brain and immune function
in positive ways and underscore the need for
additional research.
Key words: meditation, mindfulness, EEG, immune
function,
brain asymmetry, influenza vaccine
HIV human immunodeficiency virus; NK natural
killer cell;
EEG electroencephalography; EOG
electrooculography; PANAS
Positive and Negative Affective Scale; MBSR
mindfulness-
based stress reduction; MANOVA multivariate analysis
of
variance.
INTRODUCTION
With the widespread and growing use of meditative
practices
in hospitals and academic medical centers for
outpatients presenting with a range of chronic stress
and
pain-related disorders and chronic diseases, under the
umbrella
of what has come to be called mind/body or integrative
medicine, the question of possible biological
mechanisms by
which meditation may affect somatic, cognitive, and
affective
processes becomes increasingly important. Research on
the
biological concomitants of meditation practice is
sparse and
has mostly focused on changes that occur during a
period of
meditation compared with a resting control condition
in a
single experimental session (13). Whereas these
studies have
been informative, they tell us little about changes
that are
potentially more enduring. Moreover, virtually all
forms of
meditation profess to alter everyday behavior, effects
that are
by definition not restricted to the times during which
formal
meditation itself is practiced. Thus, in the current
report, we
focus not on the period of meditation itself, but
rather on the
more enduring changes that can be detected in baseline
brain
function as well as brain activity in response to
specific
emotional challenges.
We focus on emotion-related brain activity because
meditation
has been found in numerous studies to reduce anxiety
and increase positive affect (48). In an extensive
corpus of
work on the functional neuroanatomical substrates of
emotion
and affective style, we have established that the
frontal regions
of the brain exhibit a specialization for certain
forms of
positive and negative emotion (9, 10). Left-sided
activation in
several anterior regions is observed during certain
forms of
positive emotion and in subjects with more
dispositional positive
affect (10, 11). We therefore hypothesized that
because
meditation decreases anxiety and increases positive
affect,
subjects who were practicing meditation should show
increased
left-sided activation in these territories compared
with
those in a wait-list control group.
Recent studies have established that greater relative
leftsided
anterior activation at baseline is associated with
enhanced
immune function using measures of NK activity (12,
13). There has been a paucity of serious research
attention to
possible immune alterations that might be produced by
meditation
(14). This is somewhat surprising in light of the fact
that negative psychosocial influences on immunity have
now
been well established (1517). Recent research
indicates that
relaxation and stress management procedures increase
T-cytotoxic/
suppressor (CD3CD) lymphocytes in HIV-infected
men (18). On the basis of recent research
demonstrating the
negative impact of stressful life events on antibody
titers in
response to influenza vaccine (19), we vaccinated all
subjects
at the end of the 8-week meditation program (in mid
November),
along with the subjects in wait-list control group at
the
same time. We hypothesized that the meditators would
show
greater antibody titers in response to the vaccine
compared
with the subjects in the wait-list control group. On
the basis of
>From Laboratory for Affective Neuroscience (R.J.D.,
J.S., M.R.), Department
of Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wisconsin; Stress
Reduction Clinic, Division of Preventive and
Behavioral Medicine (J.K.-Z.,
S.F.S., F.U.), Department of Medicine, University of
Massachusetts Medical
School, Worcester, Massachusetts; Departments of
Medicine and Microbiology
(D.M.), University of Wisconsin Medical School;
Department of the
History of Science (A.H.), Harvard University,
Cambridge, Massachusetts;
Departments of Preventive Cardiology and Sports
Medicine (K.B.), University
of Wisconsin-Madison Hospitals and Clinics Center for
Mindfulness,
Madison, Wisconsin; and Department of Oral Biology
(J.F.S.), College of
Dentistry, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
Address reprint requests to: Richard J. Davidson, PhD,
Laboratory for
Affective Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin, 1202
W. Johnson St.,
Madison, WI 53706. Email: rjdavids@facstaff.wisc.edu
Received for publication April 4, 2002; revision
received December 27,
2002.
DOI: 10.1097/01.PSY.0000077505.67574.E3
564 Psychosomatic Medicine 65:564570 (2003)
0033-3174/03/6504-0564
Copyright © 2003 by the American Psychosomatic Society
the association we have previously reported between
anterior
activation asymmetry and NK activity, we also
predicted that
the magnitude of change toward greater relative
left-sided
activation would be associated with a larger increase
in antibody
titers in response to the vaccine.
METHODS
Measures of brain electrical activity were recorded
before random assignment
to each of the two groups (Time 1) and then again
immediately after
(Time 2) and four months after (Time 3) the training
period ended. Brain
electrical activity, or EEG, and EOG (for correcting
EEG for eye movements)
was recorded during both baseline conditions and in
response to a positive and
negative emotion induction using methods that have
been extensively described
in previous research (20, 21). EEG was recorded from
27 sites
distributed across the scalp and referenced to linked
ears during 8 1-minute
baseline trials, four with eyes open and four with
eyes closed, presented in
counterbalanced order according to our established
procedures (22). EEG was
also recorded during a 1-minute period before and a
3-minute period after
subjects wrote about one of three of the most positive
and negative experiences
in their life. These events were listed on a
questionnaire administered to
subjects before the start of the entire protocol. For
this task, the EEG was
aggregated across the 1-minute period before and the
3-minute period after the
writing itself. Data were not collected during writing
because of movement
artifact. The EEG was parsed into 1.024-second epochs,
overlapped by 50%
and then processed with the use of a fast Hartley
transform method to derive
measures of spectral power density in the -band (813
Hz), which is
inversely related to activation (20, 22). Asymmetric
activation was indexed
using an asymmetry score that is computed by
subtracting log-transformed
left hemisphere -power densities from the comparable
measure derived from
homologous right-sided electrodes.
After each of the writing periods, subjects were given
the PANAS (23) in
state form. In addition, at each assessment, they were
administered the
PANAS in trait form, along with the Spielberger
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
(24) in trait form. In addition, subjects in the
meditation group were asked
to provide daily reports of the frequency and number
of minutes and techniques
of formal meditation practice.
Blood draws were then obtained at 3 to 5 weeks and
then again at 8 to 9
weeks after vaccination to examine antibody titers in
response to the vaccine
using the hemagglutination inhibition assay (19).
A total of 48 right-handed subjects who were employees
of a biotechnology
corporation in Madison, Wisconsin, were recruited to
participate. Of
these, 41 subjects completed some of the measures for
at least two of the
assessments. The initial laboratory evaluation was
conducted before random
group assignment. Subjects were then randomly assigned
to the meditation
group (N 25; 19 female) and the wait-list control
group (N 16; 10 female)
at a ratio of approximately 3:2. There were no
differences between groups in
the number of subjects who failed to complete the
study. Average age of
subjects was 36 years and did not differ between group
(range 23 to 56
years). All but two subjects were white (one
Asian-American in the treatment
group; one South Asian Indian in the control group).
Subjects in the wait-list
control group were evaluated at each assessment period
along with subjects in
the meditation group. After completion of the last
assessment, the wait-list
control subjects were provided with an 8-week training
program comparable
to that provided to the subjects in the meditation
group.
The meditation training (known as MBSR) was delivered
by J.K.-Z., and
was directly modeled on the MBSR intervention
originally developed at the
University of Massachusetts Medical Center (25, 26).
The effects of MBSR
have been reported in numerous clinical studies with
diverse populations, as
well as in medical students (27, 28). One study
demonstrated significant
effects of mindfulness on the rate of skin clearing in
patients with moderate
to severe psoriasis (29) Two recent reviews of MBSR
research called for
studies to elucidate potential mechanisms of action
(30, 31).
The training consisted of a class that met weekly for
2.5 to 3 hours per
class, along with a silent seven-hour retreat that was
held during week 6 of the
course. In addition, subjects were assigned home
practice that consisted of
formal and informal meditative practices that they
were instructed to perform
for 1 hour per day, 6 days per week, with the aid of
guided audiotapes.
The statistical analysis of the data focused on the
interactions between
group (Meditation/Wait-list control) and time (Times
13, with the first
assessment occurring before the intervention, Time 2
occurring immediately
after the 8-week intervention and Time 3 occurring
four months after the
training period ended. MANOVAs were computed for each
of the four
anterior asymmetry measures. In addition to examining
main effects and the
interaction, linear trends were also tested. Follow-up
ANOVAs on the separate
time periods were performed.
RESULTS
Affect and Anxiety Measures
We evaluated self-report measures of positive and
negative
affect and anxiety before and after the training.
There was a
significant Group Time interaction [F(1,31) 5.45,
p
.05] on a measure of trait anxiety, the Spielberger
State-Trait
Anxiety Inventory (24), accounted for by a reduction
in anxiety
for subjects in the meditation group from Time 1 to
Time
2 [t (20) 2.86, p .01; see Figure 1). There was no
significant Group Time interaction on the Positive
and
Negative Affect Scale (23). However, in light of the
clear a
priori predictions for the meditators to show
significant decreases
in negative affect with treatment, we tested change
over time within each group. There was a significant
decrease
in trait negative affect with the mediators showing
less negative
affect at Times 2 and 3 compared with their negative
affect at Time 1 [t (20) 2.27 and t (21) 2.45,
respectively,
p .05 for both; not shown]. Subjects in the control
group
showed no change over time in negative affect (t 1).
Brain Electrical Activity Measures
Based on previous findings linking asymmetric anterior
activation to positive affect, we specifically
examined changes
in four anterior electrode sites (F3/4, FC7/8, T3/4,
and C3/4 in
the International 10/20 system) during both base-line
periods
and in response to the emotion inductions. We computed
MANOVAs with Group and Time (Times 13) as factors and
examined main effects and interactions, as well as
linear
Fig. 1. Mean trait anxiety from the Spielberger
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
(24) measured separately by group and time. Error bars
reflect
means SE.
BRAIN AND IMMUNE FUNCTION IN MEDITATION
565 Psychosomatic Medicine 65:564570 (2003)
trends. For the baseline period assessments, there was
a marginally
significant Group Time linear trend (F(1,33)
3.73, p .06) and a significant main effect for Group
(across
time periods; F(1,33) 4.57, p .04). When the
comparison
of change from baseline for each time period was
examined,
there was a significant Group Time interaction
[F(1,37)
5.14, p .05] for the Time 13 comparison and a
marginally
significant Group Time interaction [F(1,33) 2.82,
p
.10] for the Time 1-Time 2 comparison for the central
leads
(C3/4). At Time 1, no group differences were present
at
baseline for any region. At both Time 2 and Time 3,
meditators
showed significantly greater relative left-sided
activation
at the central sites (C3/4) compared with the
wait-list control
group (p .05 for each; see Figure 2).
The omnibus MANOVA performed on the positive emotion
induction condition revealed a marginally significant
overall Group Time interaction [F(2,26) 2.52, p
.10]
for the anterior temporal (T3/4) electrode leads. When
the
comparison of change from baseline for each time
period was
examined, there was a significant Group Time
interaction
[F(1,30) 4.82, p .05] for the Time 1-Time 2
comparison.
This same interaction for the Time 1-Time 3 comparison
was
marginally significant and in the same direction
[F(1,29)
3.46, p .07]. In response to the positive emotion
induction
at Time 1, no group differences were present in any
region.
However, meditators showed a significant increase in
leftsided
anterior temporal activation from Time 1 to Time 2 (p
.05), whereas controls showed no change (Figure 3).
There
were no other significant Group Time interactions
for any
other electrode site for the positive emotion
induction.
In response to the negative affect induction, the
omnibus
MANOVA revealed a marginally significant linear trend
for the Group Time interaction [F(1,27) 2.94, p
.10]
for the anterior temporal leads. The Group Time
interaction
for the Time 1-Time 2 comparison for the anterior
temporal region (T3/4) was again in the same direction
as
the other interactions, but not significant [F(1,31)
3.16,
p .08].
In response to the negative emotion induction for the
central
leads, an omnibus MANOVA revealed a marginally
significant
Group Time interaction [F(2,32) 2.78, p .08],
along with a marginally significant linear trend for
this interaction
[F(1,33) 3.45, p .07]. In addition, there was a
significant main effect for Group [F(1,33) 6.78, p
.01].
For the central leads, the Group Time interaction
for the
Time 1-Time 2 comparison was F(1,33) 3.62, p .07,
and
for the Time 1-Time 3 comparison it was F(1,37)
5.41, p
.05. Again, there were no group differences in any
region at
Time 1. At Times 2 and 3, subjects in the meditation
group
showed significantly greater left-sided activation
(C3/C4)
compared with subjects in the control group (for Time
2: p
.05; for Time 3: p .01). The meditators evinced a
significant
increase in left-sided activation in this region from
Time 1 to
Time 2 (p .05; not shown) and Time 3 (p .05:
Figure 4).
There were no group differences present for any of the
posterior electrodes sites for any of the conditions.
Influenza Vaccine Antibody Titers
In response to the influenza vaccine, the meditators
displayed
a significantly greater rise in antibody titers from
the 4
to the 8 week blood draw compared with the controls
[t(33)
2.05, p .05; Figure 5].
Fig. 2. Means SE of asymmetric activation during
baseline for subjects in the Meditation group and
Control group during Time 1 (before random assignment,
before treatment began) and Time 3. The ordinate is an
asymmetric metric that represents right minus left
log-transformed power density from the
C4/C3 electrode sites. This is a standard index of
asymmetric activation (20). Higher numbers on this
indicate greater left-sided activation.
R. J. DAVIDSON et al.
566 Psychosomatic Medicine 65:564570 (2003)
Relations Among Measures
To examine the relation between the magnitude of
increase
in left anterior activation and the magnitude of
antibody titer
rise in response to the influenza vaccine from the 4-
to 8-week
blood draw, we computed a change score for each
subject to
express the change in activation asymmetry from Time 1
to
Times 2 and 3 and correlated the change in activation
asymmetry
with the rise in antibody titers, separately for each
group. Among subjects in the meditation group, those
who
showed a greater increase in left-sided activation
from Time 1
Fig. 3. Means SE asymmetric activation (in the T3/T4
electrode sites) in response to the positive emotion
induction in the Meditation group and Control
group during Times 1 and 2. The ordinate is the same
metric of asymmetric activation displayed in Figure 2.
Fig. 4. Means SE asymmetric activation in response
to the negative emotion induction in the Meditation
group and Control group during Times 1 and 3.
The ordinate is the same metric of asymmetric
activation displayed in Figure 2 (C3/C4).
BRAIN AND IMMUNE FUNCTION IN MEDITATION
567 Psychosomatic Medicine 65:564570 (2003)
to Time 2 displayed a larger rise in antibody titers
(r .53, p
.05; see Figure 6) while there was no significant
relation
between these variables for subjects in the control
group (r
.26). These correlations were not significantly
different.
We also examined correlations between the frequency
and
duration of reported practice and changes in the
self-report
and EEG measures that showed significant Group Time
interactions, as well as antibody titers to influenza
vaccine.
There were no significant associations between the
measures
of practice and any of the biological or self-report
measures.
Descriptive statistics on these measures of daily
practice are
provided in Table 1.
Fig. 5. Means SE antibody rise from the 3- to 5-week
to the 8- to 9-week blood draw in the Meditation and
Control groups. The ordinate displays the
difference in the log-transformed antibody rise
between the 3- to 5- and the 8- to 9-week blood draws
derived from the hemagglutination inhibition
assay.
Fig. 6. Scatter plot for the meditation group only
showing the relation between the change in asymmetric
anterior activation at baseline from Time 1 to Time
2 in C3/C4 and the magnitude of rise in antibody
titers to the influenza vaccine from the week 3 to 5
to the week 8 to 9 blood draw. The meditators
that showed the largest magnitude increase in
left-sided anterior activation from Time 1 to Time 2
also showed the largest rise in antibody titers from
the 3- to 5- to 8- to 9-week blood draws. There was no
significant relation between these variables in the
control group.
R. J. DAVIDSON et al.
568 Psychosomatic Medicine 65:564570 (2003)
DISCUSSION
These findings are the first to document significant
changes
in anterior activation asymmetry as a function of
meditation
training. A variety of previous research has
established that
activation asymmetries in anterior scalp regions are
related to
dispositional affect. Moreover, such asymmetries
reflect both
state and trait components (32, 33) with both phasic
positive
mood as well as dispositional positive affect
associated with
greater relative left-sided anterior activation. On
the basis of
an extensive corpus of both animal and human data,
Davidson
and colleagues recently suggested (33) that prefrontal
activation
asymmetries are plastic and could be shaped by
training.
The findings from this study are the first to suggest
that
meditation can produce increases in relative
left-sided anterior
activation that are associated with reductions in
anxiety and
negative affect and increases in positive affect.
We predicted that we would find significant changes in
prefrontal as well as central electrode locations. It
is unclear
why our most consistent findings were observed at the
central
leads (C3/C4), although this is a region where we have
observed
reliable affect-related asymmetries in the past (11).
Moreover, we have found robust asymmetric increases in
left
premotor activation in response to positive emotional
pictures
in a study that measured regional glucose metabolism
with
positron emission tomography (34). The fact that there
was no
significant increase in dispositional positive affect
in the meditation
group may be related to the failure to detect
increases
in left prefrontal activation. It may well be that if
the duration
and/or intensity of the intervention were increased,
the increases
would be observed in both positive affect and left
prefrontal activation.
It is of interest that we observed reliable increases
in
left-sided activation with training in the meditation
group in
response to both the positive and negative affect
induction.
We have suggested on the basis of a growing literature
on the
neural bases of emotion regulation that left-sided
anterior
activation is associated with more adaptive responding
to
negative and/or stressful events. Specifically,
individuals with
greater left-sided anterior activation have been found
to show
faster recovery after a negative provocation (see
Refs. 32 and
33 for reviews).
To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of a
reliable effect of meditation on an in vivo measure of
immune
function. The finding may reflect a relatively more
rapid peak
rise in antibody titers among the meditators compared
with the
controls. The observation that the magnitude of change
in
immune function was greater for those subjects showing
the
larger shift toward left-sided activation further
supports earlier
associations between these indices (12, 13).
There are several limitations of our study that are
important
to note. First, there was a relatively small number of
subjects
who participated and this limited our statistical
power. A
number of our hypothesized effects were in the
predicted
direction, but failed to reach significance. Second,
the study
examined the impact of a relatively brief intervention
delivered
in a demanding work environment during regular
business
hours. It will be of interest in the future to examine
the
changes in brain and immune function produced by MBSR
or
more intensive training in a more conducive learning
environment.
And, finally, the measures of brain function we
obtained
are relatively crude (see Ref. 20 for a discussion of
their
limitations). Future studies should examine the impact
of
meditation using more neuroanatomically informative
measures
of brain function such as functional magnetic
resonance
imaging.
Our findings indicate that a short training program in
mindfulness meditation (MBSR) has demonstrable effects
on
brain and immune function and underscores the need for
additional research on the biological consequences of
this
intervention.
The authors thank the John D. and Catherine T.
MacArthur
Foundations Research Network on Mind-Body
interaction, The
Fetzer Institute, and National Institutes for Mental
Health (Grant
P50 MH61083), and Anne Skillings for technical support
during the
intervention phase of the study.
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TABLE 1. Self-Reported Daily Practice in the
Meditation Group
Time 2 Time 3
Means SD Range Means SD Range
How regularly do you practice (06 scale) 2.48 2.14
06 1.70 1.66 06
How long do you practice (030 minutes/session) 16.19
min 9.74 030 14.21 min 13.36 030
How many times have you practiced in the last week?
2.52 2.56 07 2.15 2.03 07
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